Distribution Patterns, Genetic Mechanisms and Disaster-Causing Mechanisms of Loess Caves in Typical Watersheds of the Dongzhi tableland

Loess caves serve as critical precursors to landslides and collapses on the Loess Plateau, yet their spatial distribution and formation mechanisms under coupled natural and anthropogenic influences remain poorly constrained. This study investigates sinkhole distributions in three representative catchments of the Dongzhi tableland area using field surveys, UAV photogrammetry, and GIS-based spatial analyses. We compare two distinct genetic types: landslide-controlled caves and irrigation-induced caves. The results show that caves in landslide settings cluster on specific landslide micro-units with higher density on shady slopes due to enhanced soil moisture and suffosion. In contrast, irrigation-induced caves align along tableland edges as clustered groups with significantly higher density on sunny slopes owing to uneven irrigation. Cave development is controlled by topography, fracture networks, catchment conditions, and human activities-but their relative importance differs between settings. Landslide-related caves originate from suffosion along landslide-induced fissures, whereas irrigation-related caves evolve through a coupled mechanism of vertical suffosion, lateral undercutting and along‑slope erosion driven by prolonged agricultural water input. Critically, loess caves act as key nodes in hazard chains. We identify two typical cascade models: "cave-shallow landslide-gully" and "cave-collapse". Both follow a five-stage evolution pattern: point erosion - linear connection - network expansion - overall failure- Cave Re-development. Our findings provide insights into loess cave development under contrasting environments and support disaster prevention strategies on the Loess Plateau.